The crown officials included the treasurer, assayer, smelter, master of weights and measures, and the bailiff. El Tio, meaning “the Uncle,” appears as a devilish creature, and his statues in the mines are given offerings of cigarettes, strong alcohol, and coca leaves. The mud was then washed away into troughs or vats (tingas) and the silver amalgam put into canvas bags, any free mercury filtering out. The annual production being about 300,000 lbs. Fernandes de Velasco, a Spaniard, who had arrived in Peru from Mexico in 1572, was able to modify the amalgamation process so that the Huancavelica mercury might be applied to the Potosi silver ores. These were the famous silver “prices of eight” worth eight reales, stamped with the coat of arms of the Habsburg Monarchy and a Greek cross with Lions and Castles, and with the “P” for Potosi. Today, the descendants of those slaves … Like us on Facebook to get the latest on the world's hidden wonders. The city gave rise to a Spanish expression, still in use: vale un Potosí, ("to be worth a Potosí") meaning "to be of great value". He established a Pacific fleet based in Callao (Armada del Mer del Sul) and in 1570 he established the Inquisition in Peru. The voyage took from four to six months and the loss among the crews was as high as thirty to forty percent. Over the next 200 years, more than 40,000 tons of silver were shipped out of the town, making the Spanish Empire one of the richest the world had ever seen. We’re leaving Sucre with a bus that is taking us to Potosí – one of the highest cities in the world – in just over three hours. The Silver Mine at Potosí. He was right. Should You Visit the Silver Mines of Potosi in Bolivia? ca. The Mita system was under challenge as never before. … The Basics. But such vast wealth also came at a price. At Potosi mining methods were primitive. Video shot with iphone 5s inside Potosi silver mines to show the working conditions of the miners Mexico’s silver sustained the Manila galleons until the beginning of the nineteenth century, and the Bourbon monarchs of Spain attempted to revive Potosi in the 1780s. Potosi: AN EMPIRE OF SILVER David F. Myrick Is RICH AS Potosi is a comparative phrase used by miners of the Western world. Potosí (Silver Mines of Colonial Peru) The extensive silver mines of the mountain of Potosí (in the highlands of contemporary Bolivia, at an altitude of 4,800 meters) proved among the most important sources of wealth in all of Spain’s New World holdings, fleetingly filling the coffers of the Spanish treasury for more than two centuries while relegating thousands of Indian laborers to a hellish work existence. Over the next 200 years, more than 40,000 tons of silver … The mint mixed private and public interests. No less vital were the bulky raw materials required by the silver mining and processing establishments- iron, salt, lead and litharge, copper sulfate and mercury. The consequence in the words of the viceroy Toledo was to consummate “the greatest marriage in the world” between the mountains of Huancavelica and Potosi. The hardest tasks – smelting coin metal, cutting and preparing coin blanks for stamping – was carried out by drafted Andeans and enslaved Africans. Silver Mines Ltd. are a junior, late stage development company looking for silver with one mine in development in Australia and three exploration properties. The ships retired once they had loaded or unloaded their cargoes to the well-fortified port of Cartagena on the northern coast of South America. Anonymous Spanish. But they were critical to the production of silver. The rise of silver production in Potosí also transformed the shipping in the Spanish Atlantic system. The ore for amalgamation was crushed to a fine powder and mixed with water and mercury, salt, and impure copper sulfate. In 1600 the fleet carried 3,393 quintiles of mercury. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, puerto galera - phillipines.com, East Asia in the sixteenth century: Malacca, China and Japan. He overthrew the neo-Inca state at Vilacabamba and defeated the last neo-Inca ruler, Tupac Amaru (1542-1572), and executed him in Cuzco. In 1565 a direct round-trip link was established across the Pacific Ocean from the Americas when the pilot monk, Andres de Urdaneta, found the long-sought return route from the Far East to Mexico. Potosi History. The mills were complex and expensive. The products of Asia were of far higher quality than anything in Europe at the time. Once discovered this route was followed by the galleons from Manila for over 250 years. The air blast was provided by sheep or goat skin bellows. The history of Potosi Bolivia as a major source of revenue for the Spanish Crown started to end around the year 1800. In the 1630’s debased Potosi silver bars with the Potosi mark were rejected by bankers on the money markets of Genoa and Antwerp. But in fact, the Manila Galleons, many built in the Philippines, were huge ships that combined the carrying capacity of carracks with the maneuverability and speed of caravels, reaching 2,000 tones, and carrying at times silver to the value of two and a half million silver pesos. The “red mountain” is still producing silver, tin, zinc, lead, and other metals. To learn more or withdraw consent, please visit our cookie policy. All rights reserved. The silver rich veins of the “Cerro Rico” are about a meter wide on average and the vines dive steeply into the mountain from the surface. By then the great days of Potosi were a thing of the past. 6000 such furnaces (guayra), set on pedestals to capture the wind, covered the hills around Potosi during the early years burning wood, charcoals, and llama dung. In 1545, a new Spanish mining town was founded in the Andes mountains of modern-day Bolivia, and for next 250 years, the mines of Potosí would fund the Spanish crown and its imperial ambitions. On the outskirts of a desert trading village high on the Andean plain, steel giants have been destroyed by salt winds. Between 1576 and 1600 two-thirds of all mercury consumed in Spanish America came from the Peruvian mine. He remained in Lisbon for three years overseeing the affairs of his vast empire. By 1531 silver imports into Seville passed gold by weight and by 1561 silver imports surpassed gold by value. Professor Maxwell's Assistant Lucas Bertolo at the Potosi mines in November 2020. On average, these miners worked for 6 months, before dying from mining accidents, lung related diseases, starvation or exhaustion. The flow of Spanish American silver to Asia via Europe was facilitated when in December of 1580 Philip ll of Spain arrived in Lisbon to claim the crown of Portugal as Philip l of Portugal. Within decades the miners reached the water table at 400 to 500 meters depth. Largest site of dinosaur footprints ever found includes more than 5,000 tracks. Manila Galleon (ca. But a consequence of the establishment of the trans-Pacific round trip route was that one third of the silver produced in Spanish America between 1565 and 1815 went to the Far East by the Manila galleons, complementing the Portuguese dominated route from Europe around Africa and across the Indian Ocean through the Malacca Straits and into the South China Sea to the mouth of the Pearl River to Macao and Canton. The return voyage was easy and could usually be accomplished in less than a month. Pizzaro ordered Atahualpa executed by garrote in July 1533. Tourists at the mine light a stick of dynamite, available from the local market for approximately $2. The silver mine started in 1877 and closed in 1946. The silver mines of Potosi. As of 06/11/2020 they have no debt and ~A$7M cash. Like Atlas Obscura and get our latest and greatest stories in your Facebook feed. He forcibly resettled the Andean population in permanent settlements (reducciones). During this time, tens of thousands of African slaves were brought and forced to extract the mountain recourses, quickly turning Potosí into one of the wealthiest cities in the world. Coca Vendor, Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, ca. March 9, 2017. 1585. When the Inca treasure arrived in Seville in 1534 it was enough precious metal to upset the money markets in Europe and the Mediterranean. Cerro Rico (Spanish for "rich mountain"), Cerro Potosí ("Potosí mountain") or Sumaq Urqu (Quechua sumaq "beautiful, good, pleasant", urqu "mountain", "beautiful (good or pleasant) mountain") is a mountain in the Andes near the Bolivian city of Potosí. Does the traditional story of Potosi’s discovery and naming sound likely to you? Around 30,000 African slaves were also brought to the city, where they were forced to work and die as human mules. Due to this depletion, tin took over as the main product. Sixteen Andean provinces were designated to provide a labor pool for Potosi at any given time. The infamous silver mines of Potosi run for miles deep into Cerro Rico (Rich Mountain in Spanish, due to the astounding amount of silver extracted from it). The repossessing plants were called “haciendas de minas” and were substantial establishments containing the stamp mill and incorporating the residence of the mine owner, his houses of workers and their families, as well as a chapel, stables for mules and horses, machinery sheds, and store houses. He was the fifth Spanish viceroy and he remained in Peru eleven years and five months and traveled in tours of inspection over five years and 8000 kilometers over its territory. Cerro Rico and Haciendas de Minas, ca. The number of vessels arriving in Nombre de Dios, ranged from 27.3 in the decade 1611-1620 to 20.0 in the decade 1681-1690. In the 1570s the Chinese moved from paper money to a silver-based system. "If everyone is thinking alike, someone isn’t thinking. 1607, Hispanic Society of America, New York. There is no security at the mine, you just drive into the mining … A visit to the mine begins at the local market in the town. African Slaves were also sent by this route to Potosí until 1622 when the Spanish crown insisted that all African slaves for the Spanish American pacific coast territories be sent via Panama (though the clandestine trade via Buenos Aires continued). The muddy composite was spread out over a stone paved courtyard (the “patio” hence the name “patio” process). products such as cochineal, silk, tobacco, indigo, and hides became increasing important components of Spanish American trade with Europe. African slaves from Angola were imported clandestinely via Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires. Access to the mines (Potosi reached a depth of 750 feet by 1600) was by ladders of twisted rawhide with wooden rungs, wide enough to permit two files of workers to climb up and down at the same time. The rich surface silver ores at Potosí were processed initially by smelting. Spain had some of Europe’s richest iron deposits and Basque ironmongers became essential to Potosi. Why or why not? Labor in the Peruvian mines was almost exclusively provided by the indigenous population. To this day, a workers’ collective extracts minerals from the mine. Quite frankly, after all these years, the former “rich” mountain hardly has any more treasures to give. In an effort to be in compliance with GDPR we are providing you with the latest documentation about how we collect, use, share and secure your information, we want to make you aware of our updated privacy policy here. 1590) Boxer Codex, Lilly Library, Indiana University. Galleries were haphazard, airless, and full of dust, and few miners escaped permanent crippling from mercury poisoning. 13,000 were obligated to work in Potosi where they would be distributed to mines, stamp mills, or to various tasks in the city. The silver wasn’t fully depleted, however, and it is still mined to this day. In May 1657 the Manila galleon arrived off the Mexican coast under full sail, its treasures intact, but with everyone on board dead. To get to the Philippines from New Spain (Mexico) was relatively easy and the route was established in the 1540s. This centuries-old mine remained hidden beneath a hotel bar until 2013. Even Cervantes allu ded to these riches in his Don Quixote. The Parian District in Manila, Manila, 1671, Archivo General de Indias, Sevilla, Spain, The gate to the 16th century Chinese quarter in Manila. The “Imperial Villa of Potosi” was on a barren plateau devoid of everything needed for life and work. or 136.000 kgs through the 1640s. Dams at Potosi, de Orsua y Vela Bartolome, História de la Villa Imperial de Potosi, 3 Vols, Edited by Lewis Hanke and Gunnar Mendoza, Providence, R.I. Brown University Press, 1965, Coca Traders at Potosi. European goods and slaves were illegally imported from Brazil and Buenos Aires at a much cheaper cost than the ones from the lengthy route by Panama, which cost more. Due to the lack of protective equipment, the work is still very dangerous. And the union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal greatly facilitated the flow of silver from Seville to Lisbon and from Lisbon to India and China and Japan via the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The coins were made by hand. Chinese porcelains and silks, damasks and satins, were exchanged for Spanish American silver in Manila which became a great entrepôt because of its fortuitous location at the intersection of two economic systems: The Chinese zone where silver was expensive and the Americas where silver was cheap. In 1602 the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci and his assistant Li Zhizou marked the “Potosi Mountain” (Bei Du Xi Shan) on their world map for Wanli, China’s Emperor. Potosí was founded as a mining town in 1546, while Bolivia was still part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Prevailing southerly winds made it almost impossible to reach Peru from Panama except in January and February. In effect it created the first global currency of exchange, the “pieces of eight” each with the mark “P” for the Potosi Mint established by the Viceroy of Peru (1569-1581), Francisco Alvares de Toledo, in 1574. Elsewhere crude noticed pine logs reaching up to 400 feet from the lower levels were used. Using stamp mills, powered by mules or water wheels, the silver ore was crushed to gravel then smelted in blast furnaces with lead and lead oxide. Broken Hill in Australia is the world's second biggest silver mine. There is nothing ‘touristy’ and homely about Potosi but the town is a great testament to the authentic Bolivian history and culture. Silver Mines of Potosí, Potosi, One of the main tourist attractions of Potosi in Bolivia is the Cerro Rico. Over the centuries, approximately 60,000 tons of … This was an exaggeration. In a decree of January 28, 1547, Charles V conferred the title of "villa imperial" on the city and from that … The sheer amount of silver produced mind boggling. The French and English resorted to privateering attacking the silver laden ships or the ports where the bullion was loaded in the Gulf of Mexico (Vera Cruz) or the Caribbean (Nombre de Dios). As the saying went: “No peace beyond the line.” The Spaniards in response instituted a system of armed convoys. The rapid introduction of the most modern technology was a characteristic of these early years of European colonial activity in the Americas. The city of Potosí, Bolivia, stands on a barren terrace on the northern slope of the Cerro Garda de Potosí. During the sixteenth century the population of Potosi grew to over 200,000 and its silver mine became the source of 60% of the world’s silver. But even an elevation as high as this does not stop the nearby Cerro Potosí from dominating the surrounding landscape. Nombre de Dios was a fever ridden location, difficult to defend, and tended to be occupied only at the time of the arrival of the fleets. In 1672, Potosí became the site of the Spanish Colonial Mint and, with a population of around 200,000, was one of the richest cities in the world. After 1559 there was a tacit understanding between France and Spain that beyond a line west of the Canaries and south of the Tropic of Cancer the European powers were not held to the standards of conduct that governed their relations in Europe. Silver was also carried via the Rio de la Plata (the “silver river”) following the reestablishment of Buenos Aires in 1580. The “union ibérico” of the crowns of Spain and Portugal lasted until 1640. In the viceroyalty of Peru, Huancavelica and Potosi, were over 1000 miles apart. The growth of Potosi stimulated the regional economy. But in August 1780, the efforts by the Spanish authorities to impose a new Mita regime provoked the “Great Andean Rebellion” which began first at Pocoata, north of Potosi, led by Tomás Katari, an indigenous spokesman who had petitioned for reforms. © 2021 Atlas Obscura. He was the only viceroy to visit Potosi. Offer available only in the U.S. (including Puerto Rico). Agricultural and pastoral activities were stimulated on both sides of the Andes. The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, called Potosi “the Treasury of the World.”. The buildings were constructed near streams whenever possible because water was essential to operate the machinery of the mill. The ships in New Spain (Mexico) were known as the “Nao de China”, literally the “Ship of China.”. Silver was critical to European trade with the Orient. The great advantage of the amalgamation over smelting was that it made the exploitation of lower grade silver ores profitable and greatly extended the range that could be worked, and salt mixed with mercury was used to extract fine grains from silver from what had before been worthless host rock. The dramatic rise in Spanish American silver production in the 1570’s was the result of the adoption at Potosi of the “patio” process of amalgamation of silver ores with mercury which produced a quadrupling of silver export from Peru in the ten years between 1576-1585. The silver from Potosi was supposed to go through one route to be taxed but is now leaving through a backdoor. The silver mine began like most colonies, with the rape and pillage of local amenities sometime back in the 16th century. In Potosi miners might remain underground for the entire work week. Cargoes for Lima were unloaded at Calloa and carried inland by mules or in heavy carts. In fact, getting to Manila from New Spain was a far easier and shorter voyage than getting to Peru from New Spain (Mexico). Potosi silver mine in Bolivia was set up by the Spanish with slave labour in 1545. Potosi is located about 150 kilometres southwest of the ‘white city’ of Sucre. It is one of the poorest cities in Peru today with a majority population composed of indigenous peoples. The foundation of the city dates from 1547, two years after the discovery of silver on the Cerro. Between 1545 and 1810 Potosi’s silver contributed nearly 20% of all known silver produced in the world across 265 years. This subterranean passage reveals the city's mining history as well as its legendary terrors. Please click below to consent to the use of this technology while browsing our site. Legend attributes its name to potojchi or potocsi, a Quechua word meaning “deafening noise,” or “crash.”. The silver bars were brought to the mint from the Royal treasury office next door where the Royal Fifth was paid. The article also treats the social and environmental consequences of nearly five hundred years of continuous mining … The siege of La Paz in early 1781 was led by an indigenous rebel who called himself Tupac Katari. The contingent from Chucuito was only part of the 40,000 indigenous peoples encamped at the foot of the Serro Rico or travelling to and from the high plateau to meet their Labor obligations. If the voyage lasted more than six months the ships could become floating coffins. English traders of the East India Company were beginning to find another locally produced (and far more destructive) and profitable Indian export that the Chinese loved as much as silver: opium. Founded in 1545 as a mining town, it soon produced fabulous wealth, and the population eventually exceeded 200,000 people. The valleys are 1,950 meters above sea level. It is estimated that eighty-five percent of the silver produced in the central Ande… Silver Mines Recreation Area State Hwy D Fredericktown, MO Phone: (573) 438-5427 (Potosi/Fredericktown District Office) Closest Towns: Arcadia, Fredericktown, Ironton Directions: From Fredericktown: From the intersection of MO Hwy 72 and US Hwy 67, head West on Hwy 72 approx. Brazil was connected to Potosi’s mining complex from Buenos Aires. The most famous image of the “Cerro Rico” came from the much-copied 1553 woodcut illustration published in the “Crônica del Peru” by Pedro de Cieza de Leon. The massive salt beds of the Salar de Uyuni, the World’s largest salt flat, was several days walk away. The rich mountain, Cerro Rico, produced an estimated 60% of all silver mined in the world during the second half of the 16th century. Ships needed to sail at a latitude of a least 10 degrees north of the equator in order to catch a favorable wind. Silver Mines is located at a historic mining operation and is known for its Precambrian granite and felsite rocks. For the richest citizens, fresh fish arrived from the Pacific packed in ice. The size of the ships raising from 240 tons in the 1550s to 400 tons in 1600. It was once used as a classroom to teach mining skills to local high school students. These forced labor drafts were only outlawed in 1812 and were declared over by Simon Bolivar in 1825. Manila - Acapulco trans- Pacific trade route of the Manila Galleons, Spanish Manila Galleons (1565-1815) San Juan Capistrano Visitor Series, Part 2. 465 years has not shown a great improvement in working conditions. or 200,00 kgs of pure silver was “reported” as processed in Potosi. The cerro rico is from the Pedro de Cieza de Leon illustration of 1553, Smelting silver at Potosi. No purchase necessary. From Lima, Arequipa, and Huancavelica, routes linked Cuzco and Potosi, crossed the Andes, Chaco, and Pampas to Buenos Aires. It took two months for the 2,000 indigenous people required for the labor draft of Chicuito, on the southwest shore of Lake Titicaca, together with their families, each with ten llamas, to travel the 300 miles to Potosi. Textiles came from Cuzco or were imported from Europe via the official route through Panama, or by the clandestine route though Brazil. Because of the hellish conditions, many of the miners survive by drinking extremely strong alcohol, chewing coca leaves, and worshiping Tio — a god of the underworld who holds the power of life and death between his fingers. Luis de Campoche claimed that the roads of Peru were so covered with people that it seemed that the whole kingdom was on the move. By the end of the sixteenth century, it had become one of the largest and the highest cities in the world, and in 1561, Philip ll of Spain, decreed that it should be known as the “Villa Imperial de Potosí.”. Bolivia's silver mountain loses its lustre as report warns of risk of collapse. Silver Mines Recreation Area is named for the abandoned “Einstein Mine”, which was mined for Silver, Tungsten and Lead. Home / Activities / Parks & Nature / National Forests / Mark Twain Fredericktown RD / Silver Mines. I had a 4WD so did not take a guided underground tour. Hispanic Society of America, Ottoman illustration of the Cerro Rica of Potosi from Tarih-l Hind-l. Carbi, manuscript, ca 1582, The Newberry Library, Chicago, Dams at Potosi. A dam was built across the river by the mining company; the dam and the entrance to the mine are still there. Consider supporting our work by becoming a member for as little as $5 a month. During November of the same year, south of Cuzco, a local cacique in the village of Tinta, José Gabriel Condorcanqui, taking the name Tupac Amaru ll, seized the local Spanish Corregidor, José de Arriaga, and executed him. Conditions underground were harsh. A similar amount was seized from the Inca treasury of Cuzco. The main attraction of the city – once the largest and richest place on the entire continent of America – is the silver mine of the Cerro Rico. He had also been a small coca dealer who knew his way around the Andean mountains. Routing and timing were governed by prevailing natural conditions. The rebels rejected their Mita obligations totally. Sign up for our newsletter and enter to win the second edition of our book. In this article I’m taking you to the almost exhausted mines of Potosí, a miners-market and the lord of the underground. But the Andean rebellion flared and tens of thousands were killed. All had to be brought from afar. But the great Potosi silver facilitated global interconnected trade and finance network did not survive the 17th century. The new Republic of Bolivia in the high Andes took his name. Chinese merchants in Manila, mainly from Fujian, lived in an intramuros area known as the Parian, and grew in number some 150 in 1564 to 30,000 in 1603. Here it was agitated by a team of mules, and then heaped into piles where it stood for some weeks while the silver ore was separated chemically and amalgamated with mercury. The city came into existence after the discovery of silver there in 1545 and quickly became famous for its wealth. Yet it is certainly the case that the Spaniards needed to overcome formidable obstacle in ordered to successfully exploit the mineral resources of the high Andes, overcoming obstacles of labor supply, distance, transportation, capital, and technical expertise. Work at the Huancavelica mercury mine for much of the sixteenth century was above ground using open cast techniques. Offer subject to change without notice. From the depths of this amazing mountain, huge amounts of silver have been extracted since 1545.. Tours, tourism and hotels in Bolivia The viceroy Toledo also established the mint in Potosi in 1574. The Potosi “P” had become a synonym for poison. A network of communications thus developed which joined the mining centers to the colonial capital, the seaports, and their regional supply zones. The silver of Potosi thus stimulated the formation of a sophisticated regional and global trading network. Philip ll decreed that the ships should be no more than 300 tones. Public Domain . Although the Spanish would eventually discover the silver mines of Potosi in 1545, this was not the same as the legendary Sierra de la Plata . This article examines the long history of Potosí, Bolivia, home of the world’s most productive silver mines. The Spanish Crown appropriated the mines in 1570 and operated them until Peru’s independence in 1821. Luis Capoche writing in 1585 observed that “nothing in the way of food can be produced in Potosi or the surrounding areas except some potatoes (which grow like truffles) and green barley, which does not form grain because the cold is continuous…”. China had one quarter of the world’s population and the largest taxing system in the world and silver became the only acceptable currency for paying taxes. It is a cold and barren landscape. In 1563 this situation was transformed when a rich mercury mine was discovered at Huancavelica in central Peru. The water came from the warm mineral springs on the road to Oruro, where the “Ojo del Inca” (the Inca’s Baths) at Tarapaya provided the reagents to the dozens of early refineries. Many miners die in cave-ins or from silicosis, a serious disease that damages the lungs, and there’s been recent concern of the whole mine collapsing. At Potosi there were 120 processing mills in 1658. Like so much written about Potosi. The man-Eating mines of Potosí On the Bolivian Altiplano, at more than 4000 meters above sea level, lies South America's most elevated town. Mules and cattle were raised around Cordoba and Tecuman province (in present day Argentina, literally “the land of silver”). Atlas Obscura and our trusted partners use technology such as cookies on our website to personalise ads, support social media features, and analyse our traffic. Follow us on social media to add even more wonder to your day. 1615. But few recalled the central and pioneering role that Potosi and its silver had played in the sixteenth century in creating and facilitating the first globalized network of world interconnection. He ended the chaotic situation of the first decades of Spanish dominion. Winner will be selected at random on 05/01/2021. Ships for the Pacific coastal trade were built in Nicaragua, Guatemala, or in Mexico, and could be as large as 300 tones. Francisco Álvares de Toledo, fifth viceroy of Peru (public domain). The opening of the trade to the East, and particularly to China, by these two seaborne routes had dramatic consequences. Huancavelica became the “greatest jewel in the Crown” and mercury became the basis on which the tax on precious metals, the “quinto,” was levied. Potosi is the world’s highest city (4,090 metres / 13,420 feet) and the mines are located even further up – at 4,200 metres (or 13,779 feet) altitude – on the ‘silver mountain’ Cerro Rico. Per the Colorado State University, History of Porco and Potosi: Historical research suggests that well before the Inca invasion around 1,000 AD, Porco was the location of silver mines as well as an important ritual center that attracted pilgrims from throughout the southern Andes. The price of Spain’s wealth was paid for with the lives of indigenous South American and African slaves who worked in the mines. The industrial infrastructure comprised 22 lagunas or reservoirs, from which a forced flow of water produced the hydraulic power to activate the 140 ingenios or mills to grind silver ore. The great silver (and tin veins) of Bolivia’s Eastern Cordillera are the richest of both metals on the world. It is the world's biggest silver mine by a factor of 2. This is the city I thought about the longest when we were planning our trip. He was captured in October 1781. In 1565 a fleet system took on a regular form.
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